Main Article Content
Abstract
Herbal medicinal products have attained worldwide importance due to their healing properties, cultural acceptance and relatively low side effects when compared to synthetic medications. This review examines the progression of herbal medicine and its incorporation into contemporary pharmaceutical practices. It emphasizes the increasing dependence on plant-based treatments, particularly in developing countries, along with the economic potential of the herbal market in India. Major advancements include innovative drug delivery methods such as liposomes, phytosomes and nanoparticles, which improve the bioavailability and effectiveness of active phytochemicals. The article addresses challenges related to standardization, safety issues and the necessity for stringent quality control to guarantee consistency and dependability. Different forms of dosage such as tablets, capsules, syrups, creams and ointments showcase the adaptability of herbal products. Nonetheless, challenges like variability in phytochemicals, toxicity risks, and inadequate regulatory frameworks inhibit full-scale commercialization. In sum, the research emphasizes the significance of merging traditional knowledge with contemporary scientific validation to create safe, effective and globally accepted herbal medications.
Keywords
Liposomes
Phytosomes
Nanoparticles
Quality Control
Scientific Validation
Economic Potential
Article Details
How to Cite
Phytotherapy for Future: Herbal Medicinal Plants and Their Role in Developing Effective Formulations . (2025). International Journal of Research in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics, 14(3), 498-510. https://ijrpp.com/ijrpp/article/view/725
How to Cite
Phytotherapy for Future: Herbal Medicinal Plants and Their Role in Developing Effective Formulations . (2025). International Journal of Research in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics, 14(3), 498-510. https://ijrpp.com/ijrpp/article/view/725
References
-
1. Chikezie PC, Ojiako OA (2015) Herbal Medicine: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.Altern Integr Med 4: 195. doi: 10.4172/2327-5162.1000195.
2. Guidelines for the appropriate use of herbal medicine, Essential Medicines and Health Products Information Portal a World Health Organization resource.
3. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2, Issue 4, Pages 465-473.
4. KambojV. P.Current Science herbal medicine Vol. 78, No. 1 (10 January 2000), pp. 35-39.
5. I. Ogbuewu, V. Odoemenam, H. Obikaonu, The growing importance of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) in agriculture, industry, medicine and environment: A review, Res J Med Plant. 5 (2011) 230–245.
6. J. Sarris, St. John’s wort for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 36 (2013) 65–72.
7. H. Wu, M. Chen, Y. Fan, F. Elsebaei, Y. Zhu, Determination of rutin and quercetin in Chinese herbal medicine by ionic liquid-based pressurized liquid extraction–liquid chromatography–chemiluminescence detection, Talanta. 88 (2012) 222–229.
8. U. Hani, H.G. Shivakumar, Solubility Enhancement and Delivery Systems of Curcumin a Herbal Medicine: A Review, Curr. Drug Deliv. 11 (2014) 792–804.
9. A. Del Prete, A. Scalera, M.D. Iadevaia, A. Miranda, C. Zulli, L. Gaeta, et al., Herbal products: Benefits, limits, and applications in chronic liver disease, Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2012 (2012). doi:10.1155/2012/837939.
10. A.Y. Gadre, D.A. Uchi, N.N. Rege and S.A. Daha – nuclear. Variations in HPTLC Fingerpirnt patterns of marketed oil formulations of celastrus paniculates. Abstracts: Ind. J. of Pharmacology. 33: 124-45 (2001).
11. S. Grabley. and R. Thiericke. Bioactive agents from natural sources trends in discovery and application. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 64: 101-54 (1999).
12. M.F. Balandrin, J.A. Klocke, E.S. Wurtele and W.H. Ballinger, Natural plant chemicals : Sources of industrial and medicinal materials. Science, 228: 1154- 60 (1985).
13. A. Bonati. Medicinal plants and industry. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2: 167-171 (1980).
14. R.O. Wijesekara. Is there an industrial future for phytopharmceutical drugs? An outline of UNIDO programs in the sector, Chemical Industries Branch, United Nationals Industrial Development Organization, J. Ethnopharmacol. 32: 217-224 (1991).
15. A.M. Clark, Natural products as a resource for new drugs. Pharm. Res. 13: 1133-44(1996).
16. L.J. Nisbet, M. Moore and D.D. Soejarto. Will natural products remain and important source of drugs research for the future? Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8: 708-12 (1997).
17. WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003.
18. V.P. Kamboj. Herbal medicine, current science 78(1): 35-39(2000).
19. Anonymous. Sectoral study an Indian Medicinal plants-status, perspective and strategy for growth, (Biotech Consortium India Ltd., New Delhi, 1996).
20. Pravin H, Nikam, Joseph K, Jadhav A, and Kadam V,Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 02. (06);2012: 38-44.
21. J.L. Mclaughlin and L.L. Roger. Drug Information. J., 32: 513 (1998).
22. Farnsworth, N.R., Blowster,R.N., Darmratoski, D., Meer, W.A., and Cammarato, L.V. (1967): Studies on Catharanthus alkaloids IV Evaluation by means of TLC and ceric ammonium sulphate spray reagent, Lloydia 27: 302-314.
23. Farnsworth, N.R. and Bingel, A.S. (1977): Problems and prospects of discovery new drugs from higher plants by pharmacological screening. Springer Verlag, Berlin.1-22.
24. Chatterjee, I., Chakravarty, A.K. and Gomes, A. (2004): Indian J. Exp Biol 42; 468-475.
25. World Health Organization & WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations. Fifty-second report of the WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations. 2018.
26. M. Immordino, F. Dosio, L. Cattel, Stealth liposomes: review of the basic science, rationale, and clinical applications, existing and potential, Int. J. Nanomedicine. 1 (2006) 297.
27. R.L. Hamilton, J. Goerke, L.S. Guo, M.C. Williams, R.J. Havel, Unilamellar liposomes made with the French pressure cell: a simple preparative and semiquantitative technique., J. Lipid Res. 21 (1980) 981–92.
28. M. Coimbra, B. Isacchi, L. Van Bloois, J.S. Torano, A. Ket, X. Wu, et al., Improving solubility and chemical stability of natural compounds for medicinal use by incorporation into liposomes, Int. J. Pharm. 416 (2011) 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.01.056.
29. S. Mura, J. Nicolas, P. Couvreur, Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery, Nat. Mater. 12 (2013) 991–1003. doi:10.1038/NMAT3776.
30. S.S. Ajazuddin, Applications of novel drug delivery system for herbal formulations, Fitoterapia. 81 (2010) 680–689.
31. R. Jain, T. Stylianopoulos, Delivering nanomedicine to solid tumors, Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 7 (2010) 653–664.
32. A. Mazumder, A. Dwivedi, J.L. du Preez, J. du Plessis, In vitro wound healing and cytotoxic effects of sinigrin–phytosome complex, Int. J. Pharm. 498 (2016) 283–293. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.12.027.
33. P. Habbu, S. Madagundi, R. Shastry, R. Vanakudri, V. Kulkarni, Preparation and Evaluation of Antidiabetic Activity of Allium cepa-Phospholipid Complex (Phytosome) in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats, RGUHS J Pharm Sci. 5 (2016) 132–141. doi:10.5530/rjps.2015.4.3.
34. W. Maryana, H. Rachmawati, D. Mudhakir, Formation of Phytosome Containing Silymarin Using Thin Layer-Hydration Technique Aimed for Oral Delivery, Mater. Today Proc. 3 (2016) 855–866. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2016.02.019.
35. L. Ziberna, S. Fornasaro, J. Cvorovic, F. Tramer, S. Passamonti, Bioavailability of Flavonoids: The Role of Cell Membrane Transporters, in: R.R. Watson, V.R. Preedy, S. Zibadi (Eds.), Polyphenols Hum. Heal. Dis., Academic Press, USA, 2014: pp. 489–511. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-398456-2.00008-6.
36. R. Duncan, H. Ringsdorf, R. Satchi-Fainaro, Polymer therapeutics: Polymers as drugs, drug and protein conjugates and gene delivery systems: Past, present and future opportunities, J. Drug Target. 192 (2006) 1–8. doi:10.1007/12_037.
37. X. Pang, H.L. Du, H.Q. Zhang, Y.J. Zhai, G.X. Zhai, Polymer-drug conjugates: Present state of play and future perspectives, Drug Discov. Today. 18 (2013) 1316–1322. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2013.09.007.
38. I.S. Johnson, H.F. Wright, G.H. Svoboda, J. Vlantis, Antitumor Principles Derived from Vinca rosea Linn I. Vincaleukoblastine and Leurosine, Cancer Res. 20 (1960) 1016–1022.
39. Oncovin (Vincristine Sulfate), United States Food Drug Adm. (2016).
40. J. Folkman, D.M. Long, The use of silicone rubber as a carrier for prolonged drug therapy., J. Surg. Res. 4 (1964) 139–142. doi:10.1016/S0022-4804(64)80040-8.
41. A.D. Bangham, R.W. Horne, Negative staining of phospholipids and their structural modification by surface-active agents as observed in the electron microscope., J. Mol. Biol. 8 (1964) 660–668. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80115-7.
42. A.D. Bangham, M.M. Standish, J.C. Watkins, Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids, J. Mol. Biol. 13 (1965) 238–252. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(65)80093-6.
43. R.K. Kulkarni, E.G. Moore, A.F. Hegyeli, F. Leonard, Biodegradable poly(lactic acid) polymers, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 5 (1971) 169–181. doi:10.1002/jbm.820050305.
44. U. Scheffel, T.K. Natarajan, J. Wagner, H. N, Albumin for Study of the Reticuloendothelial System., J. Nucl. Med. 13 (1972) 498–503.
45. G. Gregoriadis, Drug entrapment in liposomes, FEBS Lett. 36 (1973) 292–296. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(73)80394-1.
46. H. Ringsdorf, Structure and properties of pharmacologically active polymers, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Symp. 51 (1975) 135–153. doi:10.1002/polc.5070510111.
47. G. Gregoriadis, P.D. Leathwood, B.E. Ryman, Enzyme entrapment in liposomes, Methods Enzymol. 44 (1976) 218–227. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(76)44019-3.
48. R. Duncan, J.B. Lloyd, J. Kopecek, Degradation of side chains of N-(2 hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide copolymers by lysosomal enzymes, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 94 (1980) 284–290. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(80)80218-X.
49. The New York Times, Drug that reduces risk in transplants gets early approval, New York Times Co. (1983).
50. H.J. Krause, A. Schwarz, P. Rohdewald, Polylactic acid nanoparticles, a colloidal drug delivery system for lipophilic drugs, Int. J. Pharm. 27 . (1985) 145–155. doi:10.1016/0378-5173(85)90064-X.
51. W.B. Peeling, Phase III studies to compare goserelin (zoladex) with orchiectomy and with diethylstilbestrol in treatment of prostatic carcinoma, Urology. 33 (1989) 45–52. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(89)90106-4.
52. Adagen (pegademase bovine ) Injection, Enzon Pharm. Inc. (2008) 1–5.
53. W.E. Leary, Drug made from rare tree is approved to treat cancer, New York Times. (1992) 28–30.
54. M. Bethesda, Background Information Regarding Accelerated Approval of DOXIL ® in AIDS-Related Kaposi’s Sarcoma Phase 4 Commitment DOXIL ® (doxorubicin HCl liposome injection) NDA 50-718, (20015) 21.
55. Y. Lu, C.-S. Li, Q. Dong, Chinese herb related molecules of cancer-cell-apoptosis: a minireview of progress between Kanglaite injection and related genes., J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 27 (2008) 1–5. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-27-31.
56. Camptosar, (2004). doi:10.1055/s-2006-961069
57. Veregen, (2006).
58. S. Hickey, H.J. Roberts, N.J. Miller, Pharmacokinetics of oral vitamin C, J. Nutr. Environ. Med. 17 (2008) 169–177. doi:10.1080/13590840802305423.
59. C.A. Dehelean, S. Feflea, S. Ganta, M. Amiji, Anti-angiogenic effects of betulinic acid administered in nanoemulsion formulation using chorioallantoic membrane assay, J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 7 (2011) 317–324. doi:10.1166/jbn.2011.1297.
60. Vincristine sulfate liposome injection, United States Food Drug Adm. (2012).
61. A. Gismondi, G. Reina, S. Orlanducci, F. Mizzoni, S. Gay, M.L. Terranova, et al., Nanodiamonds coupled with plant bioactive metabolites: A nanotech approach for cancer therapy, Biomaterials. 38 (2015) 22–35. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.10.057.
62. M.M. Ochi, G. Amoabediny, S.M. Rezayat, A. Akbarzadeh, B. Ebrahimi, In vitro co-delivery evaluation of novel pegylated nano-liposomal herbal drugs of silibinin and glycyrrhizic acid (Nano-phytosome) to hepatocellular carcinoma cells, Cell J. 18 (2016) 135–148.
63. S. Bent, Herbal Medicine in the United States: Review of Efficacy, Safety, and Regulation, J. Gen. Intern. Med. 23 (2008) 854–859.
64. M. Asif, A brief study of toxic effects of some medicinal herbs on kidney, Adv. Biomed. Res. 1 (2012) 44. doi:10.4103/2277-9175.100144.
65. E.J.Y. Kim, Y. Chen, J.Q. Huang, K.M. Li, V. Razmovski-Naumovski, J. Poon, et al., Evidence-based toxicity evaluation and scheduling of Chinese herbal medicines, J. Ethnopharmacol. 146 (2013) 40–61. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.027.
66. M. Coimbra, B. Isacchi, L. Van Bloois, J.S. Torano, A. Ket, X. Wu, et al., Improving solubility and chemical stability of natural compounds for medicinal use by incorporation into liposomes, Int. J. Pharm. 416 (2011) 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.01.056.
67. M. Suffness, Taxol: From discovery to therapeutic use, Annu. Rep. Med. Chem. 28 (1993) 305–314. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-7743(08)60902-1.
68. G.M. Cragg, S.A. Schepartz, M. Suffness, M.R. Grever, The taxol supply crisis. New NCI policies for handling the large-scale production of novel natural product anticancer and anti-HIV agents, J. Nat. Prod. 56 (1993) 1657–1668. doi:10.1021/np50100a001.
69. P.S. Fasinu, P.J. Bouic, B. Rosenkranz, An overview of the evidence and mechanisms of herb-drug interactions, Front. Pharmacol. 3 (2012) 1–19. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00069.
References
1. Chikezie PC, Ojiako OA (2015) Herbal Medicine: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.Altern Integr Med 4: 195. doi: 10.4172/2327-5162.1000195.
2. Guidelines for the appropriate use of herbal medicine, Essential Medicines and Health Products Information Portal a World Health Organization resource.
3. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2, Issue 4, Pages 465-473.
4. KambojV. P.Current Science herbal medicine Vol. 78, No. 1 (10 January 2000), pp. 35-39.
5. I. Ogbuewu, V. Odoemenam, H. Obikaonu, The growing importance of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) in agriculture, industry, medicine and environment: A review, Res J Med Plant. 5 (2011) 230–245.
6. J. Sarris, St. John’s wort for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 36 (2013) 65–72.
7. H. Wu, M. Chen, Y. Fan, F. Elsebaei, Y. Zhu, Determination of rutin and quercetin in Chinese herbal medicine by ionic liquid-based pressurized liquid extraction–liquid chromatography–chemiluminescence detection, Talanta. 88 (2012) 222–229.
8. U. Hani, H.G. Shivakumar, Solubility Enhancement and Delivery Systems of Curcumin a Herbal Medicine: A Review, Curr. Drug Deliv. 11 (2014) 792–804.
9. A. Del Prete, A. Scalera, M.D. Iadevaia, A. Miranda, C. Zulli, L. Gaeta, et al., Herbal products: Benefits, limits, and applications in chronic liver disease, Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2012 (2012). doi:10.1155/2012/837939.
10. A.Y. Gadre, D.A. Uchi, N.N. Rege and S.A. Daha – nuclear. Variations in HPTLC Fingerpirnt patterns of marketed oil formulations of celastrus paniculates. Abstracts: Ind. J. of Pharmacology. 33: 124-45 (2001).
11. S. Grabley. and R. Thiericke. Bioactive agents from natural sources trends in discovery and application. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 64: 101-54 (1999).
12. M.F. Balandrin, J.A. Klocke, E.S. Wurtele and W.H. Ballinger, Natural plant chemicals : Sources of industrial and medicinal materials. Science, 228: 1154- 60 (1985).
13. A. Bonati. Medicinal plants and industry. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2: 167-171 (1980).
14. R.O. Wijesekara. Is there an industrial future for phytopharmceutical drugs? An outline of UNIDO programs in the sector, Chemical Industries Branch, United Nationals Industrial Development Organization, J. Ethnopharmacol. 32: 217-224 (1991).
15. A.M. Clark, Natural products as a resource for new drugs. Pharm. Res. 13: 1133-44(1996).
16. L.J. Nisbet, M. Moore and D.D. Soejarto. Will natural products remain and important source of drugs research for the future? Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8: 708-12 (1997).
17. WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003.
18. V.P. Kamboj. Herbal medicine, current science 78(1): 35-39(2000).
19. Anonymous. Sectoral study an Indian Medicinal plants-status, perspective and strategy for growth, (Biotech Consortium India Ltd., New Delhi, 1996).
20. Pravin H, Nikam, Joseph K, Jadhav A, and Kadam V,Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 02. (06);2012: 38-44.
21. J.L. Mclaughlin and L.L. Roger. Drug Information. J., 32: 513 (1998).
22. Farnsworth, N.R., Blowster,R.N., Darmratoski, D., Meer, W.A., and Cammarato, L.V. (1967): Studies on Catharanthus alkaloids IV Evaluation by means of TLC and ceric ammonium sulphate spray reagent, Lloydia 27: 302-314.
23. Farnsworth, N.R. and Bingel, A.S. (1977): Problems and prospects of discovery new drugs from higher plants by pharmacological screening. Springer Verlag, Berlin.1-22.
24. Chatterjee, I., Chakravarty, A.K. and Gomes, A. (2004): Indian J. Exp Biol 42; 468-475.
25. World Health Organization & WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations. Fifty-second report of the WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations. 2018.
26. M. Immordino, F. Dosio, L. Cattel, Stealth liposomes: review of the basic science, rationale, and clinical applications, existing and potential, Int. J. Nanomedicine. 1 (2006) 297.
27. R.L. Hamilton, J. Goerke, L.S. Guo, M.C. Williams, R.J. Havel, Unilamellar liposomes made with the French pressure cell: a simple preparative and semiquantitative technique., J. Lipid Res. 21 (1980) 981–92.
28. M. Coimbra, B. Isacchi, L. Van Bloois, J.S. Torano, A. Ket, X. Wu, et al., Improving solubility and chemical stability of natural compounds for medicinal use by incorporation into liposomes, Int. J. Pharm. 416 (2011) 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.01.056.
29. S. Mura, J. Nicolas, P. Couvreur, Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery, Nat. Mater. 12 (2013) 991–1003. doi:10.1038/NMAT3776.
30. S.S. Ajazuddin, Applications of novel drug delivery system for herbal formulations, Fitoterapia. 81 (2010) 680–689.
31. R. Jain, T. Stylianopoulos, Delivering nanomedicine to solid tumors, Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 7 (2010) 653–664.
32. A. Mazumder, A. Dwivedi, J.L. du Preez, J. du Plessis, In vitro wound healing and cytotoxic effects of sinigrin–phytosome complex, Int. J. Pharm. 498 (2016) 283–293. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.12.027.
33. P. Habbu, S. Madagundi, R. Shastry, R. Vanakudri, V. Kulkarni, Preparation and Evaluation of Antidiabetic Activity of Allium cepa-Phospholipid Complex (Phytosome) in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats, RGUHS J Pharm Sci. 5 (2016) 132–141. doi:10.5530/rjps.2015.4.3.
34. W. Maryana, H. Rachmawati, D. Mudhakir, Formation of Phytosome Containing Silymarin Using Thin Layer-Hydration Technique Aimed for Oral Delivery, Mater. Today Proc. 3 (2016) 855–866. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2016.02.019.
35. L. Ziberna, S. Fornasaro, J. Cvorovic, F. Tramer, S. Passamonti, Bioavailability of Flavonoids: The Role of Cell Membrane Transporters, in: R.R. Watson, V.R. Preedy, S. Zibadi (Eds.), Polyphenols Hum. Heal. Dis., Academic Press, USA, 2014: pp. 489–511. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-398456-2.00008-6.
36. R. Duncan, H. Ringsdorf, R. Satchi-Fainaro, Polymer therapeutics: Polymers as drugs, drug and protein conjugates and gene delivery systems: Past, present and future opportunities, J. Drug Target. 192 (2006) 1–8. doi:10.1007/12_037.
37. X. Pang, H.L. Du, H.Q. Zhang, Y.J. Zhai, G.X. Zhai, Polymer-drug conjugates: Present state of play and future perspectives, Drug Discov. Today. 18 (2013) 1316–1322. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2013.09.007.
38. I.S. Johnson, H.F. Wright, G.H. Svoboda, J. Vlantis, Antitumor Principles Derived from Vinca rosea Linn I. Vincaleukoblastine and Leurosine, Cancer Res. 20 (1960) 1016–1022.
39. Oncovin (Vincristine Sulfate), United States Food Drug Adm. (2016).
40. J. Folkman, D.M. Long, The use of silicone rubber as a carrier for prolonged drug therapy., J. Surg. Res. 4 (1964) 139–142. doi:10.1016/S0022-4804(64)80040-8.
41. A.D. Bangham, R.W. Horne, Negative staining of phospholipids and their structural modification by surface-active agents as observed in the electron microscope., J. Mol. Biol. 8 (1964) 660–668. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80115-7.
42. A.D. Bangham, M.M. Standish, J.C. Watkins, Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids, J. Mol. Biol. 13 (1965) 238–252. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(65)80093-6.
43. R.K. Kulkarni, E.G. Moore, A.F. Hegyeli, F. Leonard, Biodegradable poly(lactic acid) polymers, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 5 (1971) 169–181. doi:10.1002/jbm.820050305.
44. U. Scheffel, T.K. Natarajan, J. Wagner, H. N, Albumin for Study of the Reticuloendothelial System., J. Nucl. Med. 13 (1972) 498–503.
45. G. Gregoriadis, Drug entrapment in liposomes, FEBS Lett. 36 (1973) 292–296. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(73)80394-1.
46. H. Ringsdorf, Structure and properties of pharmacologically active polymers, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Symp. 51 (1975) 135–153. doi:10.1002/polc.5070510111.
47. G. Gregoriadis, P.D. Leathwood, B.E. Ryman, Enzyme entrapment in liposomes, Methods Enzymol. 44 (1976) 218–227. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(76)44019-3.
48. R. Duncan, J.B. Lloyd, J. Kopecek, Degradation of side chains of N-(2 hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide copolymers by lysosomal enzymes, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 94 (1980) 284–290. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(80)80218-X.
49. The New York Times, Drug that reduces risk in transplants gets early approval, New York Times Co. (1983).
50. H.J. Krause, A. Schwarz, P. Rohdewald, Polylactic acid nanoparticles, a colloidal drug delivery system for lipophilic drugs, Int. J. Pharm. 27 . (1985) 145–155. doi:10.1016/0378-5173(85)90064-X.
51. W.B. Peeling, Phase III studies to compare goserelin (zoladex) with orchiectomy and with diethylstilbestrol in treatment of prostatic carcinoma, Urology. 33 (1989) 45–52. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(89)90106-4.
52. Adagen (pegademase bovine ) Injection, Enzon Pharm. Inc. (2008) 1–5.
53. W.E. Leary, Drug made from rare tree is approved to treat cancer, New York Times. (1992) 28–30.
54. M. Bethesda, Background Information Regarding Accelerated Approval of DOXIL ® in AIDS-Related Kaposi’s Sarcoma Phase 4 Commitment DOXIL ® (doxorubicin HCl liposome injection) NDA 50-718, (20015) 21.
55. Y. Lu, C.-S. Li, Q. Dong, Chinese herb related molecules of cancer-cell-apoptosis: a minireview of progress between Kanglaite injection and related genes., J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 27 (2008) 1–5. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-27-31.
56. Camptosar, (2004). doi:10.1055/s-2006-961069
57. Veregen, (2006).
58. S. Hickey, H.J. Roberts, N.J. Miller, Pharmacokinetics of oral vitamin C, J. Nutr. Environ. Med. 17 (2008) 169–177. doi:10.1080/13590840802305423.
59. C.A. Dehelean, S. Feflea, S. Ganta, M. Amiji, Anti-angiogenic effects of betulinic acid administered in nanoemulsion formulation using chorioallantoic membrane assay, J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 7 (2011) 317–324. doi:10.1166/jbn.2011.1297.
60. Vincristine sulfate liposome injection, United States Food Drug Adm. (2012).
61. A. Gismondi, G. Reina, S. Orlanducci, F. Mizzoni, S. Gay, M.L. Terranova, et al., Nanodiamonds coupled with plant bioactive metabolites: A nanotech approach for cancer therapy, Biomaterials. 38 (2015) 22–35. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.10.057.
62. M.M. Ochi, G. Amoabediny, S.M. Rezayat, A. Akbarzadeh, B. Ebrahimi, In vitro co-delivery evaluation of novel pegylated nano-liposomal herbal drugs of silibinin and glycyrrhizic acid (Nano-phytosome) to hepatocellular carcinoma cells, Cell J. 18 (2016) 135–148.
63. S. Bent, Herbal Medicine in the United States: Review of Efficacy, Safety, and Regulation, J. Gen. Intern. Med. 23 (2008) 854–859.
64. M. Asif, A brief study of toxic effects of some medicinal herbs on kidney, Adv. Biomed. Res. 1 (2012) 44. doi:10.4103/2277-9175.100144.
65. E.J.Y. Kim, Y. Chen, J.Q. Huang, K.M. Li, V. Razmovski-Naumovski, J. Poon, et al., Evidence-based toxicity evaluation and scheduling of Chinese herbal medicines, J. Ethnopharmacol. 146 (2013) 40–61. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.027.
66. M. Coimbra, B. Isacchi, L. Van Bloois, J.S. Torano, A. Ket, X. Wu, et al., Improving solubility and chemical stability of natural compounds for medicinal use by incorporation into liposomes, Int. J. Pharm. 416 (2011) 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.01.056.
67. M. Suffness, Taxol: From discovery to therapeutic use, Annu. Rep. Med. Chem. 28 (1993) 305–314. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-7743(08)60902-1.
68. G.M. Cragg, S.A. Schepartz, M. Suffness, M.R. Grever, The taxol supply crisis. New NCI policies for handling the large-scale production of novel natural product anticancer and anti-HIV agents, J. Nat. Prod. 56 (1993) 1657–1668. doi:10.1021/np50100a001.
69. P.S. Fasinu, P.J. Bouic, B. Rosenkranz, An overview of the evidence and mechanisms of herb-drug interactions, Front. Pharmacol. 3 (2012) 1–19. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00069.
2. Guidelines for the appropriate use of herbal medicine, Essential Medicines and Health Products Information Portal a World Health Organization resource.
3. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2, Issue 4, Pages 465-473.
4. KambojV. P.Current Science herbal medicine Vol. 78, No. 1 (10 January 2000), pp. 35-39.
5. I. Ogbuewu, V. Odoemenam, H. Obikaonu, The growing importance of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) in agriculture, industry, medicine and environment: A review, Res J Med Plant. 5 (2011) 230–245.
6. J. Sarris, St. John’s wort for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 36 (2013) 65–72.
7. H. Wu, M. Chen, Y. Fan, F. Elsebaei, Y. Zhu, Determination of rutin and quercetin in Chinese herbal medicine by ionic liquid-based pressurized liquid extraction–liquid chromatography–chemiluminescence detection, Talanta. 88 (2012) 222–229.
8. U. Hani, H.G. Shivakumar, Solubility Enhancement and Delivery Systems of Curcumin a Herbal Medicine: A Review, Curr. Drug Deliv. 11 (2014) 792–804.
9. A. Del Prete, A. Scalera, M.D. Iadevaia, A. Miranda, C. Zulli, L. Gaeta, et al., Herbal products: Benefits, limits, and applications in chronic liver disease, Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2012 (2012). doi:10.1155/2012/837939.
10. A.Y. Gadre, D.A. Uchi, N.N. Rege and S.A. Daha – nuclear. Variations in HPTLC Fingerpirnt patterns of marketed oil formulations of celastrus paniculates. Abstracts: Ind. J. of Pharmacology. 33: 124-45 (2001).
11. S. Grabley. and R. Thiericke. Bioactive agents from natural sources trends in discovery and application. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 64: 101-54 (1999).
12. M.F. Balandrin, J.A. Klocke, E.S. Wurtele and W.H. Ballinger, Natural plant chemicals : Sources of industrial and medicinal materials. Science, 228: 1154- 60 (1985).
13. A. Bonati. Medicinal plants and industry. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2: 167-171 (1980).
14. R.O. Wijesekara. Is there an industrial future for phytopharmceutical drugs? An outline of UNIDO programs in the sector, Chemical Industries Branch, United Nationals Industrial Development Organization, J. Ethnopharmacol. 32: 217-224 (1991).
15. A.M. Clark, Natural products as a resource for new drugs. Pharm. Res. 13: 1133-44(1996).
16. L.J. Nisbet, M. Moore and D.D. Soejarto. Will natural products remain and important source of drugs research for the future? Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8: 708-12 (1997).
17. WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003.
18. V.P. Kamboj. Herbal medicine, current science 78(1): 35-39(2000).
19. Anonymous. Sectoral study an Indian Medicinal plants-status, perspective and strategy for growth, (Biotech Consortium India Ltd., New Delhi, 1996).
20. Pravin H, Nikam, Joseph K, Jadhav A, and Kadam V,Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 02. (06);2012: 38-44.
21. J.L. Mclaughlin and L.L. Roger. Drug Information. J., 32: 513 (1998).
22. Farnsworth, N.R., Blowster,R.N., Darmratoski, D., Meer, W.A., and Cammarato, L.V. (1967): Studies on Catharanthus alkaloids IV Evaluation by means of TLC and ceric ammonium sulphate spray reagent, Lloydia 27: 302-314.
23. Farnsworth, N.R. and Bingel, A.S. (1977): Problems and prospects of discovery new drugs from higher plants by pharmacological screening. Springer Verlag, Berlin.1-22.
24. Chatterjee, I., Chakravarty, A.K. and Gomes, A. (2004): Indian J. Exp Biol 42; 468-475.
25. World Health Organization & WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations. Fifty-second report of the WHO Expert Committee on Specifications for Pharmaceutical Preparations. 2018.
26. M. Immordino, F. Dosio, L. Cattel, Stealth liposomes: review of the basic science, rationale, and clinical applications, existing and potential, Int. J. Nanomedicine. 1 (2006) 297.
27. R.L. Hamilton, J. Goerke, L.S. Guo, M.C. Williams, R.J. Havel, Unilamellar liposomes made with the French pressure cell: a simple preparative and semiquantitative technique., J. Lipid Res. 21 (1980) 981–92.
28. M. Coimbra, B. Isacchi, L. Van Bloois, J.S. Torano, A. Ket, X. Wu, et al., Improving solubility and chemical stability of natural compounds for medicinal use by incorporation into liposomes, Int. J. Pharm. 416 (2011) 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.01.056.
29. S. Mura, J. Nicolas, P. Couvreur, Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery, Nat. Mater. 12 (2013) 991–1003. doi:10.1038/NMAT3776.
30. S.S. Ajazuddin, Applications of novel drug delivery system for herbal formulations, Fitoterapia. 81 (2010) 680–689.
31. R. Jain, T. Stylianopoulos, Delivering nanomedicine to solid tumors, Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 7 (2010) 653–664.
32. A. Mazumder, A. Dwivedi, J.L. du Preez, J. du Plessis, In vitro wound healing and cytotoxic effects of sinigrin–phytosome complex, Int. J. Pharm. 498 (2016) 283–293. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.12.027.
33. P. Habbu, S. Madagundi, R. Shastry, R. Vanakudri, V. Kulkarni, Preparation and Evaluation of Antidiabetic Activity of Allium cepa-Phospholipid Complex (Phytosome) in Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats, RGUHS J Pharm Sci. 5 (2016) 132–141. doi:10.5530/rjps.2015.4.3.
34. W. Maryana, H. Rachmawati, D. Mudhakir, Formation of Phytosome Containing Silymarin Using Thin Layer-Hydration Technique Aimed for Oral Delivery, Mater. Today Proc. 3 (2016) 855–866. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2016.02.019.
35. L. Ziberna, S. Fornasaro, J. Cvorovic, F. Tramer, S. Passamonti, Bioavailability of Flavonoids: The Role of Cell Membrane Transporters, in: R.R. Watson, V.R. Preedy, S. Zibadi (Eds.), Polyphenols Hum. Heal. Dis., Academic Press, USA, 2014: pp. 489–511. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-398456-2.00008-6.
36. R. Duncan, H. Ringsdorf, R. Satchi-Fainaro, Polymer therapeutics: Polymers as drugs, drug and protein conjugates and gene delivery systems: Past, present and future opportunities, J. Drug Target. 192 (2006) 1–8. doi:10.1007/12_037.
37. X. Pang, H.L. Du, H.Q. Zhang, Y.J. Zhai, G.X. Zhai, Polymer-drug conjugates: Present state of play and future perspectives, Drug Discov. Today. 18 (2013) 1316–1322. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2013.09.007.
38. I.S. Johnson, H.F. Wright, G.H. Svoboda, J. Vlantis, Antitumor Principles Derived from Vinca rosea Linn I. Vincaleukoblastine and Leurosine, Cancer Res. 20 (1960) 1016–1022.
39. Oncovin (Vincristine Sulfate), United States Food Drug Adm. (2016).
40. J. Folkman, D.M. Long, The use of silicone rubber as a carrier for prolonged drug therapy., J. Surg. Res. 4 (1964) 139–142. doi:10.1016/S0022-4804(64)80040-8.
41. A.D. Bangham, R.W. Horne, Negative staining of phospholipids and their structural modification by surface-active agents as observed in the electron microscope., J. Mol. Biol. 8 (1964) 660–668. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80115-7.
42. A.D. Bangham, M.M. Standish, J.C. Watkins, Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids, J. Mol. Biol. 13 (1965) 238–252. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(65)80093-6.
43. R.K. Kulkarni, E.G. Moore, A.F. Hegyeli, F. Leonard, Biodegradable poly(lactic acid) polymers, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 5 (1971) 169–181. doi:10.1002/jbm.820050305.
44. U. Scheffel, T.K. Natarajan, J. Wagner, H. N, Albumin for Study of the Reticuloendothelial System., J. Nucl. Med. 13 (1972) 498–503.
45. G. Gregoriadis, Drug entrapment in liposomes, FEBS Lett. 36 (1973) 292–296. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(73)80394-1.
46. H. Ringsdorf, Structure and properties of pharmacologically active polymers, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Symp. 51 (1975) 135–153. doi:10.1002/polc.5070510111.
47. G. Gregoriadis, P.D. Leathwood, B.E. Ryman, Enzyme entrapment in liposomes, Methods Enzymol. 44 (1976) 218–227. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(76)44019-3.
48. R. Duncan, J.B. Lloyd, J. Kopecek, Degradation of side chains of N-(2 hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide copolymers by lysosomal enzymes, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 94 (1980) 284–290. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(80)80218-X.
49. The New York Times, Drug that reduces risk in transplants gets early approval, New York Times Co. (1983).
50. H.J. Krause, A. Schwarz, P. Rohdewald, Polylactic acid nanoparticles, a colloidal drug delivery system for lipophilic drugs, Int. J. Pharm. 27 . (1985) 145–155. doi:10.1016/0378-5173(85)90064-X.
51. W.B. Peeling, Phase III studies to compare goserelin (zoladex) with orchiectomy and with diethylstilbestrol in treatment of prostatic carcinoma, Urology. 33 (1989) 45–52. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(89)90106-4.
52. Adagen (pegademase bovine ) Injection, Enzon Pharm. Inc. (2008) 1–5.
53. W.E. Leary, Drug made from rare tree is approved to treat cancer, New York Times. (1992) 28–30.
54. M. Bethesda, Background Information Regarding Accelerated Approval of DOXIL ® in AIDS-Related Kaposi’s Sarcoma Phase 4 Commitment DOXIL ® (doxorubicin HCl liposome injection) NDA 50-718, (20015) 21.
55. Y. Lu, C.-S. Li, Q. Dong, Chinese herb related molecules of cancer-cell-apoptosis: a minireview of progress between Kanglaite injection and related genes., J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 27 (2008) 1–5. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-27-31.
56. Camptosar, (2004). doi:10.1055/s-2006-961069
57. Veregen, (2006).
58. S. Hickey, H.J. Roberts, N.J. Miller, Pharmacokinetics of oral vitamin C, J. Nutr. Environ. Med. 17 (2008) 169–177. doi:10.1080/13590840802305423.
59. C.A. Dehelean, S. Feflea, S. Ganta, M. Amiji, Anti-angiogenic effects of betulinic acid administered in nanoemulsion formulation using chorioallantoic membrane assay, J. Biomed. Nanotechnol. 7 (2011) 317–324. doi:10.1166/jbn.2011.1297.
60. Vincristine sulfate liposome injection, United States Food Drug Adm. (2012).
61. A. Gismondi, G. Reina, S. Orlanducci, F. Mizzoni, S. Gay, M.L. Terranova, et al., Nanodiamonds coupled with plant bioactive metabolites: A nanotech approach for cancer therapy, Biomaterials. 38 (2015) 22–35. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.10.057.
62. M.M. Ochi, G. Amoabediny, S.M. Rezayat, A. Akbarzadeh, B. Ebrahimi, In vitro co-delivery evaluation of novel pegylated nano-liposomal herbal drugs of silibinin and glycyrrhizic acid (Nano-phytosome) to hepatocellular carcinoma cells, Cell J. 18 (2016) 135–148.
63. S. Bent, Herbal Medicine in the United States: Review of Efficacy, Safety, and Regulation, J. Gen. Intern. Med. 23 (2008) 854–859.
64. M. Asif, A brief study of toxic effects of some medicinal herbs on kidney, Adv. Biomed. Res. 1 (2012) 44. doi:10.4103/2277-9175.100144.
65. E.J.Y. Kim, Y. Chen, J.Q. Huang, K.M. Li, V. Razmovski-Naumovski, J. Poon, et al., Evidence-based toxicity evaluation and scheduling of Chinese herbal medicines, J. Ethnopharmacol. 146 (2013) 40–61. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.027.
66. M. Coimbra, B. Isacchi, L. Van Bloois, J.S. Torano, A. Ket, X. Wu, et al., Improving solubility and chemical stability of natural compounds for medicinal use by incorporation into liposomes, Int. J. Pharm. 416 (2011) 433–442. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.01.056.
67. M. Suffness, Taxol: From discovery to therapeutic use, Annu. Rep. Med. Chem. 28 (1993) 305–314. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-7743(08)60902-1.
68. G.M. Cragg, S.A. Schepartz, M. Suffness, M.R. Grever, The taxol supply crisis. New NCI policies for handling the large-scale production of novel natural product anticancer and anti-HIV agents, J. Nat. Prod. 56 (1993) 1657–1668. doi:10.1021/np50100a001.
69. P.S. Fasinu, P.J. Bouic, B. Rosenkranz, An overview of the evidence and mechanisms of herb-drug interactions, Front. Pharmacol. 3 (2012) 1–19. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00069.