Main Article Content

Abstract

Although prescription use is common during pregnancy, the human teratogenic risks are undetermined for quite 90% of drug treatments approved within India during the past decades. A selected birth defect may have its origins through multiple mechanisms and possible exposures, including medications. A specific pathogenic process may end in several outcomes depending upon factors like embryonic age at which a drug is run, duration and dose of exposure and genetic susceptibility. This research focuses on the teratogenic mechanisms with their effects associated with kinds of natural also as synthetic substances. Mechanisms were included only if they are associated with major structural birth defects and medications that are used relatively frequently by women of reproductive age. Identifying teratogenic mechanisms won't only be relevant for etiologic and post marketing research, but also can have implications for drug development and prescribing behavior for girls of reproductive age, especially since combinations of seemingly unrelated prescription and over the counter medications may utilize similar teratogenic mechanisms with a resultant increased risk of birth defects

Keywords

Teratogens malformations disruptions morphogenesis environmental exposures

Article Details

How to Cite
Darla R. (2021). A Critical Evaluation and Current Problems of Teratogens in Human. International Journal of Research in Pharmacology & Pharmacotherapeutics, 10(2), 149-164. https://doi.org/10.61096/ijrpp.v10.iss2.2021.149-164

References

  1. 1. Zomerdijk I, Ruiter R, Houweling L. Rmc Herings, Smjm Straus. BJOG. 2014. Bh Stricker Dispensing of potentially teratogenic drugs before conception and during pregnancy: a population-based study.
  2. 2. Mayshar Y, Yanuka O, Benvenisty N. Teratogen screening using transcriptome profiling of differentiating human embryonic stem cells. J Cell Mol Med. 2011;15(6):1393-401. doi: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01105.x, PMID 20561110.
  3. 3. Lim JH, Kim SH, Shin IS, Park NH, Moon C, Kang SS, Kim SH, Park SC, Kim JC. Maternal exposure to multi-wall carbon nanotubes does not induce embryo-fetal developmental toxicity in rats. Birth Defects Res B. 2011;92(1):69-76. doi: 10.1002/bdrb.20283.
  4. 4. Brent RL. The cause and prevention of human birth defects: what have we learned in the past 50 years? Congenital Anomalies. 2001;41(1):3-21. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-4520.2001.tb00869.x.
  5. 5. Frías JL, Gilbert-Barness E. Human teratogens: current controversies. Adv Pediatr. 2008;55:171-211. doi: 10.1016/j.yapd.2008.07.005, PMID 19048731.
  6. 6. Wilson JG. Current status of teratology. General principles and mechanisms derived from animal studies. In: Wilson JG, Fraser FC, editors Handbook of teratology. Vol. 1. New York: Plenum Press; 1977. p. 147-74.
  7. 7. Gilbert SF. Developmental biology. 7th ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates; 2003. p. 694-6.
  8. 8. Law Commission. Report on injuries to unborn children. Report No. 60. London: HMSO; 1974.
  9. 9. Lewis BV. The action of drugs on the uteroplacental circulation and the developing fetus. In: Hawkins DF, editor Obstetric Therapeutics. London: Bailliere Tindall; 1974. p. 71-105, ch. 2.
  10. 10. Lenz W. Kindliche Missbildungen nach Medikament- Einnahme wahrand der Graviditat? Dtsch med Wochenschr. 1961;86:255.
  11. 11. Shepard TH. Human teratogens: how can we sort them out? Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1986;477:105-15. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1986.tb40325.x, PMID 3545012.
  12. 12. Christina D, Kathleen A, Johnson RJ, Felix LM, Dick, Lyons Jones K. Chambers. Teratology. 1997."Hyperthermia in Pregnancy: A Prospective Cohort Study.";55:45.
  13. 13. Available from: http://www.chw.org/display/PPF/DocID/22924/router.asp; 2012 [cited 25/6/2021].
  14. 14. Clark OE. The contributions of JF Meckel, the Younger, to the science of teratology. J Hist Med Allied Sci. 1969;24(3):310-22. doi: 10.1093/jhmas/xxiv.3.310, PMID 4894391.
  15. 15. Cockroft DL, New DAT. Effects of hyperthermia on rat embryos in culture. Nature. 1975;258(5536):604-6. doi: 10.1038/258604a0, PMID 1207732.
  16. 16. Cockroft DL, New DAT. Abnormalities induced in cultured rat embryos by hyperthermia. Teratology. 1978;17(3):277-83. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420170306, PMID 675547.
  17. 17. Cohlan SQ. Excessive intake of vitamin A as a cause of congenital anomalies in the rat. Science. 1953;117(3046):535-6. doi: 10.1126/science.117.3046.535, PMID 13056604.
  18. 18. Dareste, Camille. Recherches sur la production artificielle des monstruosités, ou, Essais detératogénie expérimentale [Research on the production of artificial monstrosities, or, Essays on experimental teratology]. Paris: E. Reinwald; January 8, 2014. p. 1877. doi: 10.5962/bhl.title.45945 Accessed.
  19. 19. Edwards MJ. Hyperthermia as a teratogen: a review of experimental studies and their clinical significance. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen. 1986;6(6):563-82. doi: 10.1002/tcm.1770060610, PMID 2881371.
  20. 20. Finnell R. Teratology: general considerations and principles. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103(2):S337-42. doi: 10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70259-9.
  21. 21. Friedman JM. The principles of teratology: are they still true? Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2010;88(10):766-8. doi: 10.1002/bdra.20697, PMID 20706993.
  22. 22. Garfield, Eugene. Teratology literature and the thalidomide controversy. In: Essays of an information scientist. Philadelphia: intercollegiate studies institute Press; 1986. p. 404-12.
  23. 23. Germain MA, Webster WS, Edwards MJ. Hyperthermia as a teratogen: parameters determining hyperthermia-induced head defects in the rat. Teratology. 1985;31(2):265-72. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420310212, PMID 3992495.
  24. 24. Goldstein L, Murphy DP. Microcephalic idiocy following radium therapy for uterine cancer during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1929;18(2):189-95. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9378(29)91057-7.
  25. 25. Graham Jr. JM, Edwards MJ. ’Teratogenic Effects of Maternal Hyperthermia.’ annals of the Research Institute of environmental medicine. 1989;40:365-74.
  26. 26. Graham JM, Edwards MJ, Edwards MJ. Teratogen update: gestational effects of maternal hyperthermia due to febrile illnesses and resultant patterns of defects in humans. Teratology. 1998;58(5):209-21. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9926(199811)58:5<209::AID-TERA8>3.0.CO;2-Q, PMID 9839360.
  27. 27. Gregg NM. Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother. Epidemiol Infect. 1991;107(1):iii-xiv. doi: 10.1017/S0950268800048627.
  28. 28. Hale F. PIGS BORN WITHOUT EYE BALLS. J Hered. 1933;24(3):105-6. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a103720.
  29. 29. Hellmann W. Endotoxin, fever and anomalies of development in rabbits. Short communication. Arzneimittel-Forschung. 1979;29(7):1062-4. PMID 387048.
  30. 30. Hill R. Model systems and their predictive value in assessing teratogens. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1983;3(4):229-32. doi: 10.1016/s0272-0590(83)80132-8, PMID 6628882.
  31. 31. Wattendorf DJ, Muenke M. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Am Fam Physician. 2005;72(2):279-82, 285. PMID 16050451.
  32. 32. Kalter H. Teratology in the 20th Century: environmental Causes of Congenital Malformations in Humans and How They Were Established. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2003;25(2):131-282. doi: 10.1016/S0892-0362(03)00010-2, PMID 12748001.
  33. 33. Lary JM, Conover DL, Foley ED, Hanser PL. Teratogenic effects of 27.12 MHz radiofrequency radiation in rats. Teratology. 1982;26(3):299-309. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420260312, PMID 7163979.
  34. 34. Lary JM, Conover DL, Johnson PH, Burg JR. Teratogenicity of 27.12-MHz radiation in rats is related to duration of hyperthermic exposure. Bioelectromagnetics. 1983;4(3):249-55. doi: 10.1002/bem.2250040305, PMID 6626274.
  35. 35. Lenz W, Knapp K. Thalidomide embryopathy. Arch Environ Health An Int J. 1962;5(2):14-9. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1962.10663250.
  36. 36. Lipson A. Hirschsprung disease in the offspring of mothers exposed to hyperthermia during pregnancy. Am J Med Genet. 1988;29(1):117-24. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.1320290114, PMID 3344764.
  37. 37. Schardein JL. Current status of drugs as teratogens in man. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1985;163C:181-90. PMID 3921982.
  38. 38. Rubin PC, Craig GF, Gavin K, Sumner D. Prospective survey of use of therapeutic drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes during pregnancy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1986;292(6513):81-3. doi: 10.1136/bmj.292.6513.81, PMID 3080100.
  39. 39. Wilson JG. Present status of drugs as teratogens in man. Teratology. 1973;7(1):3-15. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420070103, PMID 4571463.
  40. 40. Shepard TH. Teratogenicity of therapeutic agents. Curr Probl Pediatr. 1979;10(2):1-42. doi: 10.1016/s0045-9380(79)80008-0, PMID 535420.
  41. 41. Shepard TH. ’Proof’ of human Teratogenicity [letter]. Teratology. 1994;50(2):97-8. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420500202, PMID 7801306.
  42. 42. Briggs GG, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. A reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk. Drugs in pregnancy and lactation. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1998.
  43. 43. Koren G. Maternal fetal toxicology: A clinician’s guide. 2nd ed. New York Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1994.
  44. 44. Shiota K. Neural tube defects and maternal hyperthermia in early pregnancy: epidemiology in a human embryo population. Am J Med Genet. 1982;12(3):281-8. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.1320120306, PMID 7114091.
  45. 45. Kawashima H, Ohno I, Ueno Y, Nakaya S, Kato E, Taniguchi N. Syndrome of microtia and aortic arch anomalies resembling isotretinoin embryopathy. J Pediatr. 1987;111(5):738-40. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(87)80257-3, PMID 3478461.
  46. 46. Fisher NL, Smith DW. Hyperthermia as a possible cause of occipital encephalocoele. Clin Res. 1980;28:116A.
  47. 47. Edwards MJ. Congenital defects in guinea pigs: fetal resorptions, abortions, and malformations following induced hyperthermia during early gestation. Teratology. 1969;2(4):313-28. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420020406, PMID 4983031.
  48. 48. Edwards MJ. Congenital defects in guinea pigs. Following induced hyperthermia during gestation. Arch Pathol. 1967;84(1):42-8. PMID 4226218.
  49. 49. Edwards MJ. The experimental production of clubfoot in guinea-pigs by maternal hyperthermia during gestation. J Pathol. 1971;103(1):49-53. doi: 10.1002/path.1711030107, PMID 5566424.
  50. 50. Jones MC, Kosaki K, Bird LM. Disruptive defects of the brain and spinal cord as a consequence of cardiopulmonary bypass and hypothermia at 18 weeks gestation. Proceedings of the Greenwood Genet Ctr. 1995;14:58-62.
  51. 51. Wang YY, Sui KX, Li H, Ma HY. The effects of lead exposure on placental NF-kappaB expression and the consequences for gestation. Reprod Toxicol. 2009;27(2):190-5. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.12.006, PMID 19159675.
  52. 52. Gomaa A, Hu H, Bellinger D, Schwartz J, Tsaih SW, Gonzalez-Cossio T, Schnaas L, Peterson K, Aro A, Hernandez-Avila M. Maternal bone lead as an independent risk factor for fetal neurotoxicity: a prospective study. Pediatrics. 2002;110(1 Pt 1):110-8. doi: 10.1542/peds.110.1.110, PMID 12093955.
  53. 53. Rischitelli G, Nygren P, Bougatsos C, Freeman M, Helfand M. Screening for elevated lead levels in childhood and pregnancy: an updated summary of evidence for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Pediatrics. 2006;118(6):e1867-95. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2284, PMID 17142507.
  54. 54. Goldhaber MK, Polen MR, Hiatt RA. The risk of miscarriage and birth defects among women who use visual display terminals during pregnancy. Am J Ind Med. 1988;13(6):695-706. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700130608, PMID 3389364.
  55. 55. AMA. Effects of toxic chemicals on the reproductive system. Council on Scientific Affairs. JAMA. 1985;253(23):3431-7. PMID 3999326.
  56. 56. Levine F, Muenke M. VACTERL association with high prenatal lead exposure: similarities to animal models of lead teratogenicity. Pediatrics. 1991;87(3):390-2. PMID 2000280.
  57. 57. Murakami U. The effect of organic mercury on intrauterine life. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1972;27:301-36. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4684-3219-0_26, PMID 4681683.
  58. 58. Amin-zaki L, Majeed MA, Elhassani SB, Clarkson TW, Greenwood MR, Doherty RA. Prenatal methylmercury poisoning. Clinical observations over five years. Am J Dis Child. 1979;133(2):172-7. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.1979.02130020064013, PMID 84530.
  59. 59. Murata K, Dakeishi M, Shimada M, Satoh H. Assessment of intrauterine methylmercury exposure affecting child development: messages from the newborn. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2007;213(3):187-202. doi: 10.1620/tjem.213.187, PMID 17984616.
  60. 60. Warkany J. Teratogen update: lithium. Teratology. 1988;38(6):593-7. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420380607, PMID 3070813.
  61. 61. Cohen LS, Friedman JM, Jefferson JW, Johnson EM, Weiner ML. A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA. 1994;271(2):146-50, PMID 8031346.
  62. 62. Lipson A. Hirschsprung disease in the offspring of mothers exposed to hyperthermia during pregnancy. Am J Med Genet. 1988;29(1):117-24. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.1320290114, PMID 3344764.
  63. 63. Jacobson SJ, Jones K, Johnson K, Ceolin L, Kaur P, Sahn D, Donnenfeld AE, Rieder M, Santelli R, Smythe J. Prospective multicentre study of pregnancy outcome after lithium exposure during first trimester. Lancet. 1992;339(8792):530-3. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)90346-5, PMID 1346886.
  64. 64. Berkowitz RL. Handbook for prescribing medications during pregnancy. 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown; 1986. p. 79.
  65. 65. Schardein JL. Current status of drugs as teratogens in man. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1985;163C:181-90. PMID 3921982.
  66. 66. Longo LD. Environmental pollution and pregnancy: risks and uncertainties for the fetus and infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1980;137(2):162-73. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(80)90770-x, PMID 6246801.
  67. 67. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. Teratogen update: polychlorinated biphenyls. Teratology. 1997;55(5):338-47. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9926(199705)55:5<338::AID-TERA6>3.0.CO;2-V, PMID 9261928.
  68. 68. Wilson JG. Present status of drugs as teratogens in man. Teratology. 1973;7(1):3-15. doi: 10.1002/tera.1420070103, PMID 4571463.
  69. 69. Costa LG, Guizzetti M, Burry M, Oberdoerster J. Developmental neurotoxicity: do similar phenotypes indicate a common mode of action? A comparison of fetal alcohol syndrome, toluene embryopathy and maternal phenylketonuria. Toxicol Lett. 2002;127(1-3):197-205. doi: 10.1016/s0378-4274(01)00501-x, PMID 12052659.
  70. 70. da Silva VA, Malheiros LR, Paumgartten FJ, Sa-Rego Mde M, Riul TR, Golovattei MA. Developmental toxicity of in utero exposure to toluene on malnourished and well nourished rats. Toxicology. 1990;64(2):155-68. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(90)90132-z, PMID 2219137.
  71. 71. Donald JM, Hooper K, Hopenhayn-Rich C. Reproductive and developmental toxicity of toluene: a review. Environ Health Perspect. 1991;94:237-44. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94-1567945, PMID 1954933.
  72. 72. Naeye RL. Maternal body weight and pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52(2):273-9. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/52.2.273, PMID 2375293.
  73. 73. Stephansson O, Dickman PW, Johansson A, Cnattingius S. Maternal weight, pregnancy weight gain, and the risk of antepartum stillbirth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;184(3):463-9. doi: 10.1067/mob.2001.109591, PMID 11228504.
  74. 74. Miller E, Hare JW, Cloherty JP, Dunn PJ, Gleason RE, Soeldner JS, Kitzmiller JL. Elevated maternal hemoglobin A1c in early pregnancy and major congenital anomalies in infants of diabetic mothers. N Engl J Med. 1981;304(22):1331-4. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198105283042204, PMID 7012627.
  75. 75. Zhao Z, Reece EA. Experimental mechanisms of diabetic embryopathy and strategies for developing therapeutic interventions. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2005;12(8):549-57. doi: 10.1016/j.jsgi.2005.07.005, PMID 16325743.
  76. 76. Loeken MR. Advances in understanding the molecular causes of diabetes-induced birth defects. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2006;13(1):2-10. doi: 10.1016/j.jsgi.2005.09.007, PMID 16303321.
  77. 77. Nielsen GL, Sørensen HT, Nielsen PH, Sabroe S, Olsen J. Glycosylated hemoglobin as predictor of adverse fetal outcome in type 1 diabetic pregnancies. Acta Diabetol. 1997;34(3):217-22. doi: 10.1007/s005920050077, PMID 9401644.
  78. 78. Kucera J. Rate and type of congenital anomalies among offspring of diabetic women. J Reprod Med. 1971;7(2):73-82. PMID 5095696.
  79. 79. Passarge E. CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS AND MATERNAL DIABETES. Lancet. 1965;1(7380):324-5. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(65)91073-1, PMID 14247899.
  80. 80. Burrow GN, Bartsocas C, Klatskin EH, Grunt JA. Children exposed in utero to propylthiouracil. Subsequent intellectual and physical development. Am J Dis Child. 1968;116(2):161-5. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.1968.02100020163007, PMID 5659292.
  81. 81. Sutherland JM, Esselborn VM, Burket RL, Skillman TB, Benson JT. Familial nongoitrous cretinism apparently due to maternal antithyroid antibody. N Engl J Med. 1960;263(7):336-41. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196008182630703.
  82. 82. Polak M. Hyperthyroidism in early infancy: pathogenesis, clinical features and diagnosis with a focus on neonatal hyperthyroidism. Thyroid. 1998;8(12):1171-7. doi: 10.1089/thy.1998.8.1171, PMID 9920374.
  83. 83. Knobloch J, Shaughnessy JD Jr., Rüther U. Thalidomide induces limb deformities by perturbing the Bmp/Dkk1/Wnt signaling pathway. FASEB J. 2007;21(7):1410-21. doi: 10.1096/fj.06-7603com, PMID 17283219.
  84. 84. Landing BH, Kamoshita S. Congenital hyperparathyroidism secondary to maternal hypoparathyroidism. J Pediatr. 1970;77(5):842-7. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(70)80245-1, PMID 5504076.
  85. 85. Potter A, Phillips, II JA. Endocrine organs. In: Stevenson RE, Hall JG, Goodman RM, editors Human malformations and related anomalies. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2006. p. 1355.
  86. 86. Connolly KJ, Pharoah POD, Hetzel BS. Fetal iodine deficiency and motor performance during childhood. Lancet. 1979;2(8153):1149-51. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(79)92382-1, PMID 91886.
  87. 87. Hetzel BS, Hay ID. Thyroid function, iodine nutrition and fetal brain development. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1979;11(4):445-60. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb03096.x, PMID 117955.
  88. 88. Yu JS, O’Halloran MT. Children of mothers with phenylketonuria. Lancet. 1970;1(7640):210-2. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(70)90571-4, PMID 4189007.
  89. 89. Rogers JM, Kavlock RJ. Developmental toxicology. In: Klaassen CD, editor: Casarett & Doull’s toxicology. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996. p. 301-31.
  90. 90. Jones KL, Smith DW, Ulleland CN, Streissguth P. Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet. 1973;1(7815):1267-71. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(73)91291-9, PMID 4126070.
  91. 91. Wilson JG. Environment and birth defects (environmental science series). London: Academic Press Pr.; 1973.
  92. 92. Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Adair T, Aggarwal R, Ahn SY, Alvarado M, Anderson HR, Anderson LM, Andrews KG, Atkinson C, Baddour LM, Barker-Collo S, Bartels DH, Bell ML, Benjamin EJ, Bennett D, Bhalla K, Bikbov B, Bin Abdulhak A, Birbeck G, Blyth F, Bolliger I, Boufous S, Bucello C, Burch M, Burney P, Carapetis J, Chen H, Chou D, Chugh SS, Coffeng LE, Colan SD, Colquhoun S, Colson KE, Condon J, Connor MD, Cooper LT, Corriere M, Cortinovis M, de Vaccaro KC, Couser W, Cowie BC, Criqui MH, Cross M, Dabhadkar KC, Dahodwala N, De Leo D, Degenhardt L, Delossantos A, Denenberg J, Des Jarlais DC, Dharmaratne SD, Dorsey ER, Driscoll T, Duber H, Ebel B, Erwin PJ, Espindola P, Ezzati M, Feigin V, Flaxman AD, Forouzanfar MH, Fowkes FG, Franklin R, Fransen M, Freeman MK, Gabriel SE, Gakidou E, Gaspari F, Gillum RF, Gonzalez-Medina D, Halasa YA, Haring D, Harrison JE, Havmoeller R, Hay RJ, Hoen B, Hotez PJ, Hoy D, Jacobsen KH, James SL, Jasrasaria R, Jayaraman S, Johns N, Karthikeyan G, Kassebaum N, Keren A, Khoo JP, Knowlton LM, Kobusingye O, Koranteng A, Krishnamurthi R, Lipnick M, Lipshultz SE, Ohno SL, Mabweijano J, MacIntyre MF, Mallinger L, March L, Marks GB, Marks R, Matsumori A, Matzopoulos R, Mayosi BM, McAnulty JH, McDermott MM, McGrath J, Mensah GA, Merriman TR, Michaud C, Miller M, Miller TR, Mock C, Mocumbi AO, Mokdad AA, Moran A, Mulholland K, Nair MN, Naldi L, Narayan KM, Nasseri K, Norman P, O’Donnell M, Omer SB, Ortblad K, Osborne R, Ozgediz D, Pahari B, Pandian JD, Rivero AP, Padilla RP, Perez-Ruiz F, Perico N, Phillips D, Pierce K, Pope CA, Porrini E, Pourmalek F, Raju M, Ranganathan D, Rehm JT, Rein DB, Remuzzi G, Rivara FP, Roberts T, De León FR, Rosenfeld LC, Rushton L, Sacco RL, Salomon JA, Sampson U, Sanman E, Schwebel DC, Segui-Gomez M, Shepard DS, Singh D, Singleton J, Sliwa K, Smith E, Steer A, Taylor JA, Thomas B, Tleyjeh IM, Towbin JA, Truelsen T, Undurraga EA, Venketasubramanian N, Vijayakumar L, Vos T, Wagner GR, Wang M, Wang W, Watt K, Weinstock MA, Weintraub R, Wilkinson JD, Woolf AD, Wulf S, Yeh PH, Yip P, Zabetian A, Zheng ZJ, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, AlMazroa MA, Memish ZA. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. December 2012;380(9859):2095-128. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0, PMID 23245604.
  93. 93. Molnar RE. Theropod paleopathology: a literature survey. In: Tanke DH, Carpenter K, editors Mesozoic vertebrate life. Indiana University Press; 2001. p. 337-63.