Main Article Content
Abstract
Overview of systematic reviews of observational epidemiological evidence suggests that passive smoking is significantly associated with an increasing risk of many diseases or health problems, especially meningitis. Active smoking is a recognized risk factor of various infectious diseases. Passive smoking appears to increase the risk of meningococcal disease (MD) in adolescents. Although smoking and smoking-associated diseases are associated with a high risk of infection, most therapies aim to reduce inflammatory parameters, but do not necessarily take into account the presence of persistent colonisers. Further epidemiological, clinical and mechanistic research into this important area is warranted. The effect of cigarette smoke on host–pathogen interaction dynamics in the nervous system, together with current and novel therapies will have significant role in elimination of infectious diseases completely. Both exposure to 'smoke', or 'smokers' (who are highly susceptible to pharyngeal carriage of meningococcal) are postulated mechanisms, but unfortunately very few studies have examined the risk of exposure by considering these two variables separately, and this therefore remains a research priority.
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References
- [1]. Close RM, Ejidokun, Verlander NQ, Fraser G: Infectious diseases, The Journal of the American Medical AssociationJAMA, 3(2), 2007, 15-35.
- [2]. Andrew J Pollard, Tully J, Viner RM, Coen PG, Stuart JM: Meningococcal disease Ulster Medical Society, American journal of public health, 15(6), 2018, 30-45.
- [3]. Jay D Wenger, McCall BJ, Neill AS, Young MM: various types of meningitis in the United States. Journal of Infectious diseases, 12(10), 1986, 5-15.
- [4]. Sun Jae Jung, Caugant DA, Hoiby EA, Magnus P: Active smoking and exposure to second hand smoke and their relationship to depressivesymptoms in the Korea national health andnutrition examination survey (KNHANES), BMC Public Health, 4(15), 2015, 25-30.
- [5]. Richard Edwards, Baraff LJ, Lee SI, Schriger DL: New Research on Second Hand Smoke and Implications for Research and practice in infants, Nicotine & Tobacco Research, paediatric infectious disease journal, 10(4), 2016, 58-65.
- [6]. Rodrigo Siqueira Batista, Arnold C, Makintube S, Istre GR: Meningococcal disease, etiology, clinical and epidemiological review Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 1(6), 2017, 85-90.
- [7]. Tom Hefferan, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG: The Impact of Active and Passive Smoking Upon Health and Neurocognitive Function, Royal College of Physicians, British medical journal,7(11), 2016, 175-200.
- [8]. Shiyi Cao, Iles K, Poplawski NK, Couper RT: The Health Effects of passive smoking an overview of systematic review on observational epidemiological evidence. POLS, Journal of Public Health, 7(11), 2015, 1155-1180.
- [9]. V. Manchanda, Horton RE, Stuart J, Christensen H, Borrow R: Meningococcal disease History, Pathogenesis, three underlying mechanisms, Clinical manifestations, Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Prevention. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, 5(4), 2009, 15-20.
- [10]. Laura Mazzola and Cassandra Kelly-Cirino, Kimmel SR: Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Prevention of meningococcal disease Pub med, November, 5(10), 2005, 1805-1820.
- [11]. Yun WJ, Shin MH, Kweon SS, Ryu SY, Rhee JA: Association of smoking status, cumulative smoking, duration of smoking cessation, age of starting smoking, and depression in Korean adults. BMC Public Health, 15(5), 2012, 555-580.
References
[1]. Close RM, Ejidokun, Verlander NQ, Fraser G: Infectious diseases, The Journal of the American Medical AssociationJAMA, 3(2), 2007, 15-35.
[2]. Andrew J Pollard, Tully J, Viner RM, Coen PG, Stuart JM: Meningococcal disease Ulster Medical Society, American journal of public health, 15(6), 2018, 30-45.
[3]. Jay D Wenger, McCall BJ, Neill AS, Young MM: various types of meningitis in the United States. Journal of Infectious diseases, 12(10), 1986, 5-15.
[4]. Sun Jae Jung, Caugant DA, Hoiby EA, Magnus P: Active smoking and exposure to second hand smoke and their relationship to depressivesymptoms in the Korea national health andnutrition examination survey (KNHANES), BMC Public Health, 4(15), 2015, 25-30.
[5]. Richard Edwards, Baraff LJ, Lee SI, Schriger DL: New Research on Second Hand Smoke and Implications for Research and practice in infants, Nicotine & Tobacco Research, paediatric infectious disease journal, 10(4), 2016, 58-65.
[6]. Rodrigo Siqueira Batista, Arnold C, Makintube S, Istre GR: Meningococcal disease, etiology, clinical and epidemiological review Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 1(6), 2017, 85-90.
[7]. Tom Hefferan, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG: The Impact of Active and Passive Smoking Upon Health and Neurocognitive Function, Royal College of Physicians, British medical journal,7(11), 2016, 175-200.
[8]. Shiyi Cao, Iles K, Poplawski NK, Couper RT: The Health Effects of passive smoking an overview of systematic review on observational epidemiological evidence. POLS, Journal of Public Health, 7(11), 2015, 1155-1180.
[9]. V. Manchanda, Horton RE, Stuart J, Christensen H, Borrow R: Meningococcal disease History, Pathogenesis, three underlying mechanisms, Clinical manifestations, Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Prevention. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, 5(4), 2009, 15-20.
[10]. Laura Mazzola and Cassandra Kelly-Cirino, Kimmel SR: Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Prevention of meningococcal disease Pub med, November, 5(10), 2005, 1805-1820.
[11]. Yun WJ, Shin MH, Kweon SS, Ryu SY, Rhee JA: Association of smoking status, cumulative smoking, duration of smoking cessation, age of starting smoking, and depression in Korean adults. BMC Public Health, 15(5), 2012, 555-580.